1. Field of Invention
The invention relates generally to the field of filtration systems. More particularly, the filtration system is used to concentrate dilute materials, such as biological particles, as may be useful in the arts of bioterrorism security, medicine, and environmental science.
2. Description of the Related Art
The difficulties of detecting and quantifying dilute materials in liquids are well known. Existing systems all begin to fail as concentration falls away until, eventually with diminished concentrations of analyte, there is an inability to detect at all. This poses a significant problem to national security where, for example, the postal anthrax attacks of 2001 and the subsequent war on terrorism have revealed shortcomings in the sampling and detection of biothreats. The medical arts are similarly affected by the existing limits on detection, as are the environmental sciences.
Just because existing systems have inherent detection limits does not mean that it is impossible to study analytes or particles for analysis that fall below these limits. It is possible to concentrate materials for analysis.
Particle concentration in liquid is traditionally performed using centrifugation. Centripetal force is used for the separation of mixtures according to differences in the density of components that form the mixture. This force separates a mixture forming a pellet of relatively dense material at the bottom of the tube. The remaining solution, which is alternatively called the supernate or supernatant liquid, may then be carefully decanted from the tube without disturbing the precipitate, or withdrawn with a Pasteur pipette. The rate of centrifugation is specified by the acceleration applied to the sample, and is typically measured in revolutions per minute (RPM) or g-forces. The particle settling velocity in centrifugation is a function of particle's size and shape, centrifugal acceleration, the volume fraction of solids present, the density difference between the particle and the liquid, and viscosity.
Problems with the centrifugation technique limit its applicability. The settling velocity of particles in the range of micron and smaller size particles is quite low and, consequently, centrifugal concentration of these particles takes several minutes to many hours. The actual time varies depending on the volume of the sample, the equipment used, and the skill of the operator. It is also difficult to segregate the particles into size ranges. Many successive centrifugations under carefully controlled circumstances may be used to separate particles into size fractions. In these separations, however, some portion of each sample will contain particles of all size fractions present. This is due to the presence of even the smallest particles in the mixture very near the bottom of the centrifugation vessel or tube at the start of the process.
Traditional flat filtration methodology is used to capture particles from a liquid onto a flat filter, which is usually supported on the back by a screen or fritted support. Many different methods of filtration exist, but all aim to attain the separation of two or more substances. This is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter. The substance that is to pass through the filter must be a fluid, i.e. a liquid or gas. The simplest method of filtration is to pass a solution of a solid and fluid through a porous interface so that the solid is trapped, while the fluid passes through. This principle relies upon the size difference between the particles making up the fluid, and the particles making up the solid. In the laboratory, this if often done using a Buchner funnel with a filter paper that serves as the porous barrier.
One disadvantage of the physical barrier method of filtration is that the substance being filtered from the fluid will clog the channels through the filter over time. The resistance to flow through the filter becomes greater and greater over time as, for example, a vacuum cleaner bag. Accordingly, methods have been developed to prevent this from happening. Most such methods involve replacing the filter; however, if the filter is needed for a continuous process this need for replacement is highly problematic. Scraping and in-situ cleaning mechanisms may be used, but these can be unnecessarily complex and expensive.
In one example, bacteria may be removed from water by passing them through a filter supported in a Buchner funnel to trap the bacteria on the flat filter. Aerosol particles containing biological materials can also be trapped in the same way. For analysis, the trapped materials are often re-suspended in a known volume of liquid. This allows back-calculation of the original aerosol concentration. One method validated by the Edgewood Chemical Biological Center uses 47 mm glass-fiber filters to capture reference samples for biological analysis. The bacteria are extracted by soaking the filters overnight in 20 mL of buffered saline solution, then vortexed for 3 minutes to disrupt the filter material completely. Subsamples or aliquots of these suspensions are then provided for analysis by viable culture, PCR or other methods.
Tangential flow filtration is a variant of traditional filtration. This technique is sometimes called side-stream filtration or cross-flow filtration, and most often uses membrane systems to purify proteins. These systems circulate retentate across the membrane surface, which minimizes the fouling of the membrane. This arrangement provides longer membrane use, resulting in higher overall filtration efficiency. This process has been used in processing cell lysate to clean up the fluid for analysis of particular proteins. Millipore Corporation and Pall manufacture tangential flow filter cassettes that may be purchased on commercial order. Tangential flow systems are also used commercially for particles larger than proteins, and on scales larger than in the micron range.
The membrane in a tangential flow system may be a hollow fiber filter. These filters are commercially produced by a few companies, most notably Spectrum Laboratories, Inc. Hollow fiber filters may be constructed and arranged in packages intended for respective use in such intended environments of use as laboratories, small scale pharmaceutical production companies, and larger scale water treatment facilities.
Fluid Analytics, Inc. of Portland, Oreg. has developed a liquid sample concentrator that utilizes tangential flow across a flat filter and a proprietary controlled sonication method to efficiently remove collected particles. The unit has a flow rate of 20 ml/min with a sample volume of up to 20 ml and a concentrated volume of less than about 1 ml. The concentration efficiency is 90%.
Other technologies for concentration of biological particulate matter exist. Sandia National Laboratories, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and, other organizations have developed microfluidic devices that separate and concentrate particles by dielectrophoresis or electrophoresis. These units use microchannels and electric fields to move or collect particles. Sandia has also developed a system that concentrates particles at the interface between two immiscible liquids. Immunomagnetic particles are commercially available for use in the separation and concentration of bacteria.
Various methods exist for concentrating organisms in liquids prior to detection. Historically, the most common method is to enrich the sample in nutrient broth and then cultivate an aliquot of the broth on an agar plate. The biggest disadvantage of this method is the time requirement. It normally takes 5 to 7 days before organisms can be enumerated on the plates. Other concentration methods include various filtration based methods, adsorption-elution, immunocapture, flocculation, and centrifugation. It is problematic that to date no automated methods have been developed that can rapidly concentrate a large volume of water into a very small sample volume and do this task efficiently. In fact most of these methods fail in each of these areas, most notably efficiency of concentration, and ease of use.
A considerable amount of research has been performed using hollow fiber ultrafiltration to concentrate bacteria, viruses, and protozoa from large volumes of water. These methods all use variations of tangential flow or dead end filtration with concentration into water or a water and surfactant solution. Most of the methods described are not automated. Generally these systems are capable of concentrating 10 to 100 L water into 100 to 500 mL of concentrated sample; however, it is further problematic that none of the demonstrated technologies provides concentration into volumes of less than 100 mL. Even this volume is much larger than desired for the best possible detection when the concentrator systems are coupled with downstream detection apparatus. This means that a costly and time-consuming second manual concentration step is required to bring the final sample to the desired volume.
In bioterrorism defense detection systems an aerosol collector captures particles in the air and concentrates them into a liquid volume in the range of 1.5 ml to 15 ml. A portion of this sample is then transferred directly to a detector which analyzes the liquid and determines if any dangerous aerosols have been collected. Advanced, rapid microbiological detectors used in these systems are only capable of analyzing volumes from around 40 μL to 200 μL of liquid at a time. This volume is about 2% or less of a 10 mL sample from the collector. Any remaining fluid is either archived or dumped to waste.